A brief history Judaea and its Coinage

Archaeologist Dorothy Garrod's excavations (1929 - 34) of caves on the slopes of Mount Carmel showed that Judea was inhabited by the Neanderthals. The culture and tools of these Neanderthals groups were similar to the ones living in Europe. Excavations at Ain Mallaha and Jericho showed that a culture called Natufian existed during the Mesolithic Period (Middle Stone Age). Natufians lived in caves as did their Paleolithic predecessors and might have practiced primitive agriculture. During the Neolithic Period (New Stone Age - 7000 BCE) inhabitants there domesticated of animals, cultivated of crops, produced pottery and built permanent villages.

During Copper Age (4th millennium BCE ) the Ghassulians immigrated to Judea. Their origin is probably Jordan Valley. Pottery and copper axes from the excavations near Beersheba linked them to Tulaylat al-Ghassul site of Jordan. In late 4 th millennium BCE a new population immigrated from the north. In time, all these peoples amalgamated into an early Bronze Age (3rd millennium) urban population of Judea.

During early Bronze Age (c. 3000 BCE) the towns of Judea had developed. There were different tribes. Some seminomadic pastoralists of the east hill country were called Amorites. The population of the plains and coast was called Canaanites. A group of people called Hyksos, possibly related to the Amorites, took control of northern Egypt in about 1630 BCE. The Hyksos might have been groups of people of Semitic origin, called the Habiru, or Hapiru (Egyptian 'Apiru). The term Habiru, meaning outsiders, was applied to nomads, fugitives, bandits, and workers of inferior status. It is etymologically related to Hebrew. Egyptians expelled the Hyksos into Judea in the late Middle Bronze Age (c. 1550 BCE). The Habiru had established a military aristocracy in Judea.

Around 1292 BCE, new migrants of monotheistic seminomadic Hebrew tribes called Israelites moved from the east into Judea. Three other peoples were settling in Judea at the time, the Edomites in the south, the Moabites east of the Dead Sea, and the Ammonites near the Syrian Desert east of Gilead. Another group of invaders from the Aegean sea called the Philistines conquered the coastal region of Judea in the early 12 th century. In the next hundred years, they replaced Canaanites from the coastal plains. The Philistines were identified as Peleset, the mercenaries used by Ramses III of Egypt. Constant conflict with their neighbors made Israelite tribes unite under a strong tribal chieftain named Saul. He became King of Israel (c.1020 BCE). He defeated the Ammonites and the Philistines but was killed in battle against Philistines (c.1000 BCE). David became the King and decisively defeated the Philistines around 990 BCE and also conquered the three Hebrew states east of the Jordan River and enlarged Kingdom of Israel.

Solomon became the King after the death of King David. During the reign of King Solomon (mid10th century), control was lost over outlying territories conquered by David. He also built the First Temple (957 BCE), the royal palace in Jerusalem and numerous fortified towns. Israelites were forced to submit to conscription in royal labor gangs. People of northern Israel revolted after King Solomon's death. Kingdom of Israel split into two states. Northern part with ten tribes of Israel became the kingdom of Israel, and southern part with two tribes (Judah and Benjamin) became Kingdom of Judah with Jerusalem as capital.

Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III conquered Israel in 722 BCE which led to the partial dispersion of the 10 northern tribes and their gradual assimilation by other peoples (Legends thus refers to them as the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel). Judah with the two tribes of Israelites survived till 586 BCE. It was conquered by the Babylonian King Nebuchadrezzar in 586 BCE. He destroyed the First Temple of Jerusalem and sent the inhabitants into exile in Babylon.

Cyrus II (c. 590-.529 BCE) of Persia conquered Babylon in 538 BCE. Cyrus II allowed Jewish exiles in Babylon to return to Jerusalem. He also decreed in c. 538 BCE to rebuild the First Temple of Jerusalem. The history of the Jews from that time onward is predominantly the history of the tribe of Judah which also absorbed Benjamin while in exile at Babylon.

Kings of Persia ruled Judaea till Alexander III defeated Darius III in 330 BCE.

Probably Persian Kings were the first to start minting coins in Judea as their use became widespread in Persian Empire.

            Judaea under Persian Rule

Cyrus II (c. 590-.529 BCE) of Persia in c. 539 BCE conquered Palestine, Phoenicia and Syria. Cyrus II allowed Jewish exiles in Babylonia return to Jerusalem. He also decreed in c. 538 BCE to rebuild first temple of Jerusalem. The following list is the Kings of Persia who ruled Judaea till Alexander III defeated Darius III in 330 BCE. Cambyses II (529-522 BCE)

Darius I (reign 522-486 BCE),

Xerxes (486?465 BCE),

Artaxerxes I (465?425 BCE),

Xerxes II(425?424 BCE),

Darius II Ochus (423?404 BCE)

Artaxerxes II (Reign 404-359 BCE)

Artaxerxes III (c359-338BCE)

King Arses (338?336 BC)

Darius III (c. 336-330 BCE)

Coins issued by the Persian Kings might have circulated in Judaea. The two coins below are coins issued by Persian Kings.

                             Silver 1/6 Siglos.

                             c.450-330 BCE. 

 Obverse : Persian king kneeling drawing a bow.

                   Reverse : Incuse punch.

                                  Silver Siglos.

                                 c.450-330 BCE.

Obverse : Persian king running holding a bow and a spear.

                         Reverse : Incuse punch.

                Judaea under Greek Rule

                                                                                                                     Alexander III

                                 333 - 323 BCE

   ( From 323 - 303 BCE under Macedonian Empire )

Judea came under Alexander's rule after he defeated Persian king Darius III in 330 BCE. Alexander III attacked and passed through Judea in c.333 BCE on his way to Egypt. Coins were issued between 330-303 BCE in the name of Alexander III at the mints in Tyre, Sidon, Ptolemais, Joppa, Gaza and Ake. After Alexander's death, Judaea came under Macedonian Empire with Ptolemy I as satrap.

       ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 336-323 BCE

                            Silver Tetradrachm.

             Obverse : Alexander as Herakles, wearing a lion's skin

 Reverse : Zeus seated holding an eagle in his right hand, a scepter in his left hand

 

                           Ptolemies

                            304 - 200 BCE

Judaea with Syria and Phoenicia came under rule of Ptolemy I who was Alexander's satrap in Egypt .

Ptolemy I declared himself King of Egypt in 304 BCE and Judaea came under Ptolemies till 200 BCE.

  Silver Tetradrachm from the time of Ptolemy I. 305-290 BCE

                 Judaea mint city of Tyre

Obverse : Alexander as Herakles, wearing a lion's skin

 Reverse : Zeus seated holding an eagle in his right hand, a scepter in his left hand

                        Seleucids

                                     200 - 161 BCE

Seleucid King Antiochus III (223?187 BCE) defeated the army of child King of Egypt Ptolemy V Epiphanes at Panion, in Judaea. Thus, Sinai desert and Judaea came under Seleucid Kingdom in 200 BCE. Antiochus the Great (Antiochus III) ruled between 223?187 BCE. Antiochus IV Epiphanes ruled Judaea between 187 - 164 BCE. Maccabean revolt, led by Judas Maccabeus happened during rule of Antiochus IV Epiphanes. Hasmonean rule started in 161 BCE.

Didrachm (1/2 shekel) from the time of Seleucid rule of Judaea.

                     Mint city Tyre.

                Obverse : Bust of Melqart.

                    Reverse : Eagle standing

                            Judaea under Hasmonaean Rule

Hasmonean or Hasmonaean name originated from Maccabee family ancestor Hasmoneus or Hasmon or Asamonaios.

Mattathias Maccabeus, a jewish priest from the town of Modein near Jerusalem rebelled against the decree by Seleucid king of Judaea Antiochus IV Epiphanes imposing the Greek religion on the Jews. Judas Maccabeus, son of Mattathias overthrew the Seleucid armies and became High priest and ruler of Judaea. After his death in 160 BCE, his brother Jonathan succeeded him. He was killed in 142 BCE and Simon his younger brother succeeded him. Antiochus VII granted the Hasmonean high priest Simon Maccabeus the right to mint coinage. Jewish symbols were used on these coins. These were copper coins. Simon was assassinated in 134 BCE. John Hyrcanus I, son of Simon succeeded him as the high priest and ruler of Judaea.

John Hyrcanus I

Bronze Prutah issued during the reign of John Hyrcanus I, c.175-104 BCE.

High priest and ruler of the Jewish nation from 134 -104 BCE.

Obverse: Yehohanan the High Priest and the Council of the Jews inside the wreath written in Hebrew.

Reverse: Pomegranate between two cornucopia.

Aristobulus I

( Judas Aristobulus )

Judas Aristobulus is first hellenized king of Judaea and first to take the title of King or Basileus. He is son of Hyrcanus I. He seized the throne from his mother and killed his siblings. Historian Josephus wrote that Aristobulus conquered the Ituraeans of Lebanon and forcibly converted them to Judaism.

Bronze Prutah issued during the reign of Aristobulus I also called Judas Aristobulus

High priest and ruler of the Jewish nation from 104 - 103 BCE.

Obverse: Yehohanan the High Priest and the Council of the Jews inside the wreath written in Hebrew.

Reverse: Pomegranate between two cornucopia.

Alexander Jannaeus

Alexander Jannaeus103-76 BCE was the first of the Hasmonean high priest denote himself as king on his coins. Coins were struck with his name and title in Greek and Hebrew.



Bronze prutah

Obverse : Anchor with a Greek legend KING ALEXANDER

Reverse : Diadem with eight-rayed star YEHONATAN THE KING between the rays of the star in Hebrew.

Bronze Prutah.

Obverse : Lily with a legend Yehonatan the King in Hebrew.

Reverse : An anchor within a circle and inscription King Alexander in Greek.

Bronze Prutah.

Obverse : Lily with a legend Yehonatan the King in Hebrew.

Reverse : An anchor within a circle and inscription King Alexander in Greek.

John Hyrcanus II

John Hyrcanus II was the last of high priest and Hasmonean dynastic rulers of Judaea from 76 to 40 BCE. He was was appointed high priest after his father Alexander Jannaeus died in 76 BCE. Hyrcanus II became the ruler of Judaea after his mother's death in 67 BCE. Aristobulus II brother of John usurped power in 67 BCE. They fought a bitter war and asked Pompey the Great to help. Pompey helped John Hyrcanus II to regain his kingdom. He lost power again to Aulus Gabinius, a military commander and restored to it by Julius Caesar. Mark Antony appointed Herod and Phasael as rulers of Judaea in 42 BCE. In 40 BCE, his nephew Mattathias Antigonus with the help of Partian invaders disfigured him by cutting off his ears thus disqualifying him to be High priest. He was exiled to Babylon. He later returned to Jerusalem in 36 BCE with the permission of by then King Herod. In 30 BCE, King Herod executed him to avoid any future power struggle with him.

Aristobulus II

Aristobulus II usurped power in 67 BCE from his brother John Hyrcanus II but did not prevail long. Pompey the Great helped John Hyrcanus II to regain his kingdom in 64 BCE. After an unsuccessful attempt to regain power in 56, Aristobulus was sent to Rome as a prisoner and remained there until his death in 49 BCE.

Mattathias Antigonus

Mattathias Antigonus ruled part of Judaea between 40-37 B.C.E. Mattathias Antigonos was son of Aristobulus II, nephew of John Hyrcanus II and great-great-grandnephew of Judah Maccabee. Parthian king Orodes II invaded Jerusalem and help Mattathias Antigonos win the position of High Priest. Rome backed Herod as king of the Jews and aided him in a war against Mattathias. In 37 BCE. Mattathias was defeated and the Hasmonaean Dynasty came to an end. Antigonus was deposed and executed by the Romans under Mark Antony. He was the last of the Maccabees and introduced the seven-branched candlestick on the coins.

Bronze Prutah of Mattathias Antigonus 40-37 BCE

Obverse: Double cornucopia with a Hebrew legend around.

Reverse: Ivy wreath with a Greek legend

Bronze Prutah of Mattathias Antigonus,40-37BCE

Obverse: Double cornucopia with Hebrew legend Mattataya the high priest and coincil of the Jews.

Reverse: Ivy wreath with ribbons with Greek legend King Antigonus.

History of the Indo-Greeks

The credit of discovery of Indo-Greek coins that had once been struck in India goes to Colonel Tod, in 1824. Probably no class of Indian coins attracted full attention than the Indo-Greek which marked first cultural mix of West and East. It is good to sketch in outline of the events took in Northern India and neighbouring countries from the time of Alexander to the first century AD. Alexander was the son of Philips, King of Macedonia, a small state in south east Europe. A man of remarkable energy became the King in 336 BC and within a span of two years, he formed a army of 3000 foot soldiers and 5000 horse-men to conquer the old Persian empire. Then he occupied Asia minor, Syria, Egypt, Kandahar and finally in 328 BC, Afghanistan too. In 327 BC, he occupied BACTRIA and garrisoned a number of forts in the area as a mark of conquest of India. The fight which took place between Poros and Alexander was remarkable and the toughest which he had ever experienced.

Impressed on the bravery of his enemy Poros, Alexander treated him generous and restored him to his throne. So great was the confidence which Poros inspired that Alexander left him in charge of all his dominions of India when he left back. Alexander then overran petty states in the vicinity and sangla, the capital of the Kathaioi (near modern Panjab) was captured. Finally when Alexander reached the bank of river Beyas beyond which Nandas had their huge empire, the soldiers of Alexander are said to have refused to go far. It was long time since they had left their home. Alexander finally began his retreat in 323 BC.

To commemorate his victories he struck a medal; about the same time an Indian prince, Sophytes (saubhuti), struck a silver coin in the Greek style. Probably, Alexander did not left any trace of his retreat other than these two exceptions. In 323 BC, the king in his youth went down with a irrecoverable fever and died prematurely in Babylon. Alexander's generals fought like dogs to inherit what Alexander had left behind, and the empire split into several kingdoms, four large - Selucid, Ptolemaic, Lysimachid and Antigonid and many smaller ones. About 250 BC, Diodotos-I, Satrap of Bactria proclaimed independence from the Selucids and took the title of King. It was Diodotos-I who founded the new dynasty now called by the historians as Indo-Bactrian or Indo-Greek. Diodotos-II, the son of the former was overthrown by Euthydemos-I who founded a new dynasty by re conquering Bactria and became the king. Thus the fourth Bactrian King Demetrios-I (200 - 190 BC), the son of Euthydemos-I assumed the throne and extended his kingdom as far as Panjab as Maurya's power was declining by then. Soon after Demetrios assumed the title "King of Indians", he became the Indian folk hero called 'Dharma-Mithra' because of his successful campaign. Eventually, the throne was passed onto his sons who governed the kingdom jointly and expanded its boundaries to include modern Panjab (part of Northern India and Pakistan).

In 170 BC, the rival Eukratides-I (177 - 135 BC) overthrew Demetrios-II and Antimachus-II in the name of Selucids and governed the Kingdom. Thus Bactria and a portion of Gandhara was lost to Eukratides-I. Hence forward, there were two rival Greek Dynasties, the house of Eukratides and Euthydemos. The house of Eukratides included Heliokles, Antialkidas, and Hermaious. They mainly ruled Gandara, Kabul and Kandahar. The house of Euthydemos had Appollodotos, Menander, Strato-I, Zoilos and Hippostratos, ruling east Gandhara and the modern Panjab. In 145 BC, Eukratides-I was murdered by his son Eukratides-II.

Menander (called Milinda, 155 - 135 BC) was a Greek general born in India. He is considered to be a contemporary of Pushyamitra. His capital Sagala became very important centre of learning and art. Patanjali was all praise for this great town of trade like that of Pataliputra - old. His campaigns were so great that he could be compared to Alexander. The difference between Alexander the great and Menander is that Alexander begun his retreat just because his army mutinied, but Menander stopped because he became Buddhist and ceded back the conquered territories to Indian rulers. The Milinda Panha (Questions of Milinda) narrates the story of conversion of Menander to Buddhism after a long discussion with Nagasen. Like Gautama Buddha, the ashes of Milinda were said to be divided amongst the representatives of various states and stupas were erected over them. Amongst his successors, the best known was Antialkidas of Taxila.

In around 70 BC, the tribal groupings were paramount : The Sakas east of the Caspian (Often called Scythians), The Sai (further Sakas of the upper Ili river) and Yueh-Chihs. Yueh-Chihs under pressure from Hsiung Nu confederation wandered over to the upper Ili in 175-160 BC pushing the Sakas southward to Kashmir and Swat. In 70 BC, Hermaios was defeated. Heliokles was driven from the country by the Scythians in 40 BC and finally in 10 BC, the last Indo-Greek ruler Strato-II disappeared from the Panjab, the hold of the Greeks over the north-western districts of India gave way.

Coinage:

Striving for realism in sculptural modelling, movement and expression became the major force motivating Hellenistic art. Perhaps there was a desire to impress subjects of the realm with the true appearance of their lawful monarch which led to engrave the portraits on the coins of Bactrian Greeks and Selucids. Alexander was the first emperor to put his portrait on his coins and the practise was inherited by his successors in India. Extraordinary realism of their portraiture and the praxitelean character of the full length images of deities on the reverse were the prime attributes of their coin. Though it is not clear whether Alexander himself has issued any coins in his name during his sojourn in India. But it is fact that his coins are a great rarity in India and it seems that his coins have come from Bactria.

The gold and silver coins with fabulous portraits, which circulated in Bactria were never current in India as they fall under Greek coinage category. The coins with the portrait head and bilingual fall under Indian coinage. The selucid king Antiochus I (293-280 BC) is shown on his coins with all the paths of humanity, the divine power is clearly reflected in Selucus's coins. Demeterios - I was the first ruler to strike square copper coins in bilingual format, Kharoshti on the reverse and Greek on the obverse. Silver coins underwent radical change upon the movement of government to south of Hindu Kush, and the coins were called Didrachm and Hemidrachms. Generally, coins are circular, exceptions are the few square ones of Appollodotos and Philoxenos. The portraits of early Indo Greek rulers such as Euthydemos-I, Demetrios-I (wearing elephant's scalp) and Antimachus (wearing Kausia - a flat shaped cap and with a smily face) are so realistic in appearance that the coin portrait seems to represent the ruler faithfully. The coins of Demetrious-II, Euthydemos-II, Pantaleon, Agathocles, Menander and Strato-I also be assigned to the same class as they express powerful features and every intricate personal details. The portrait of Eucradites-I and the bust of members of the house of Eucradites-I is so realistic that their coins indicate rigid majesty, tendency for idealization and the taste for symbolic ornamentation when compared to the coins of house of Euthedemos. Some of the coins of this house carried the image of the king on horseback. Notably, the Dioskouri, the Greek heroes featured in Eukratides's coins exhibits the horsemanship and prowess in battle through the raised spears. The coins of Appollophanes, Philoxenos and Theophilos are extremely rare and hence leads to suspect that they were the pretenders. Perhaps all the Indo Greek coins may have been the products of a single school of engravers, the realism makes us to believe that they were familiar with the Hellenestic school of Pergamon. Indo-Greeks were excellent coin smiths and the fabric far exceeded than the true Greek coins. Indo-Greeks did not like abstract shapes and so they modified Greek Gods to look like an Indian. Upon the arrivals of Greeks, the sculptural techniques had their influence. Indo-Greek remained very Greek which could be witnessed by the bilingual legends they carried on their coins. Perhaps they spoke Sanskrit than the Greek and India saw a revolution in art and culture. The Gods for whom the Indo-Greek artists laboured had hardly changed for many generations : APOLLO an intellectual God of Arts and Music, ZEUS the King and HERA the consort of Zeus, ARTEMIS a virgin huntress, muscular HERACLES the God of strength, ATHENA of wisdom, APHRODYTES a God of sexuality, DIONYSUS vitality and winged deities NIKE and EROS. HELIOS, POSEIDON, DEMETERARTEMIS, the DIOSKOURI and TYCHE are the other Greek divinities which could be seen in their coinage. Many of these images iconographically influenced Indian pantheon later stage. The vitality of Hellenistic art school is reflected in the coins the Indo Greek engravers engraved. Bold reliefs were employed on large flans to impart three dimensional effect of images and legends; The marginal borders and the legends along with the borders set the boundary. Clearly formed cheeks, broad smooth forehead, deep furrows which divides hair and beard, muscular bare body with every minute anatomical details reflect in their coinage. Though drapery is so thick, the movement is exhibited by the position of the limbs or partial torsion of the body. The figures formulated in a magnificent style that the light and shadow highlights the liveliness of image. On the reverse of Eukratides's copper has the figure of seated Zeus along with the legend in Kharoshti 'The city deity of Kapisa'. The later kings Strato-I and Hermois struck coins with debased silver and even in lead. One of the copper coins of Hermois, the legend Kujula Kadphises appears on the reverse. Probably this could be assumed that the dynasty was succeed by the Kushanas, which is dealt in the next chapter .

 

Karshapana

Kārshāpaṇa (Sanskrit: कार्षापण), according to the Ashtadhyayi of Panini, refers to ancient Indian coins current during the 7th and the 6th century BCE onwards, which were unstamped and stamped (āhata) metallic pieces whose validity depended on the integrity of the person authenticating them. Parmeshwari lal Gupta states that there is no proof that such coins were first issued by merchants and traders but adds that they did contribute to the development and spread of coin usage. Kārshāpaṇas were basically silver pieces stamped with one to five or six rūpas ('symbols') originally only on the obverse side of the coins initially issued by the Janapadas and Mahajanapadas, and generally carried minute mark or marks to testify their legitimacy. Silver punch-marked coins ceased to be minted sometime in the second century BCE but exerted a wide influence for next five centuries.

The period of the origin of the punch-marked coins is not yet known, but their origin was indigenous. The word, Kārshāpaṇa, first appears in the Sutra literature, in the Samvidhān Brāhmana. Coins bearing this name were in circulation during the Sutra and the Brāhmana period and also find a mention in the early Buddhist (Dhammapada verse 186) and Persian texts of that period. Patanjali in his commentary on the vārttikas of Kātyāyana on Aṣṭādhyāyī uses the word, "Kārshāpaṇa", to mean a coin 

कार्षापणशो ददाति

"he gives a Karshapaṇa coin to each" or

कार्षापणम् ददाति

"he gives a Kārshāpaṇa",

while explaining the use of the suffix – शस् taken up by Pāṇini in Sutra V.iv.43, in this case, कार्षापण + शः to indicate a "coin". The Shatapatha Brahmana speaks about Kārshāpaṇas weighing 100 ratis which kind were found buried at Taxila by John Marshall in 1912. The Golakpur (Patna) find pertains to the period of Ajātaśatru. The Chaman – I – Hazuri (Kabul) find includes two varieties of punch-marked Indian coins along with numerous Greek coins of 600-500 BCE, thereby indicating that those kind of Kārshāpaṇas were contemporaneous to the Greek coins and in circulation as legal tender.

During the Mauryan Period, the punch-marked coin called Rūpyārūpa, which was same as Kārshāpaṇa or Kahāpana or Prati or Tangka, was made of alloy of silver (11 parts), copper (4 parts) and any other metal or metals (1 part).The early indigenous Indian coins were called Suvarṇa (made of gold), Purāṇa or Dhārana (made of silver) and Kārshāpaṇa (made of copper). The Golakpur (Patna) find is mainly pre-Maurya, possibly of the Nanda era, and appear to have been re-validated to make them kośa- praveśya (legal tender); the coins bearing larger number of marks are thought to be older in origin. The Maurya Empire was definitely based upon money-economy.  The punch-marked copper coins were called paṇa. This type of coins were in circulation much before the occupation of Punjab by the Greeks  who even carried them away to their own homeland.  Originally, they were issued by traders as blank silver bent-bars or pieces; the Magadha silver punch-marked Kārshāpaṇa of Ajatashatru of Haryanka dynasty was a royal issue bearing five marks and weighing fifty-four grains, the Vedic weight called kārsha equal to sixteen māshas. 

Even during the Harappan Period (ca 2300 BCE) silver was extracted from argentiferous galena. Silver Kārshāpaṇas show lead impurity but no association with gold. The internal chronology of Kārshāpaṇa and the marks of distinction between the coins issued by the Janapadas and the Magadhan issues is not known, the Arthashastra of Kautilya speaks about the role of the Lakshanadhyaksha ('the Superintendent of Mint') who knew about the symbols and the Rupadarshaka ('Examiner of Coins'), but has remained silent with regard to the construction, order, meaning and background of the punched symbols on these coins hence their exact identification and dating has not been possible.

The English word, "Cash", is derived from the Sanskrit word, kārsha. The punch-marked coins were called "Kārshāpaṇa" because they weighed one kārsha each.
Indian merchants, through land and sea routes, have traded with the east African, Arab and middle-east people from 12th century BCE onwards. The term Kārshāpaṇa referred to gold, silver and copper coins weighing 80 ratis or 146.5 grains; these coins, the earliest square in shape, followed the ancient Indian system of weights described in Manu Smriti. Use of money was known to Vedic people much before 700 BCE. The words,Nishka and Krishnala, denoted money, and Kārshāpaṇas , as standard coins, were regularly stored in the royal treasuries. 

The Local silver punch-marked coins, included in the Bhabhuā and Golakpur finds, were issued by the Janapadas and were in circulation during the rule of the Brihadratha Dynasty which was succeeded by the Magadha empire founded by the Haryanka dynasty in 684 BCE; these coins show four punch-marks - the sun-mark, the six-armed symbol, arrows (three) and taurine (three) which were current even during the rule of Bimbisara (604-552 BCE). Ajatashatru (552-520 BCE) issued the first Imperial coins of six punch-marks with the addition of the bull and the lion. The successors of Ajatashatru who ruled between 520 and 440 BCE and the later Shishunaga dynasty and the nanda dynasty issued coins of five symbols – the sun-mark, the six-armed symbol and any three of the 450 symbols. The Maurya coins also have five symbols – the sun-mark, the six-armed symbol, three-arched hill with crescent at top, a branch of a tree at the corner of a four-squared railing and a bull with a taurine in front. Punch-marked copper coins were first issued during the rule of Chandragupta Maurya or Bindusara. The Bhīr find includes Maurya coins and a coin of Diodotus I (255-239 BCE) issued in 248 BCE.

The Chola & their coinage

The Chola Kingdom is an ancient, there has been references made in Mahabharatha and even in Ashokan inscriptions.  It is known that Karikala was the Chola ruler who reigned in the 2nd century AD.  During Karikala's reign, the capital city was moved to Kaveripattanam from Uraiyur.  Nedumudikilli seems to have been the successor of Karikala, whose capital town was set to fire by the sea pirates.  The frequent attacks of Pallavas, Cheras and Pandyas declined the Chola power and it was in the 8th century AD, Cholas glory began to shine when the Pallavas power declined.
Vijayalaya

In around 850 AD, Vijayalaya founded the dynasty probably by starting off as a vassal of the Pallava king.  With the conflict between Pallavas and Pandyas, Vijayalaya occupied Tanjore and made his capital.  He was succeeded by his son Aditya-I.  Aditya-I defeated Pallava king Aparajita and also Parantaka Viranarayana, the Kongu ruler.

Aditya-I

Aditya-I was soon succeeded by his son Parantaka-I and ruled between 907 to 955 AD.  Cholas power reached supremacy under his reign.  He annexed territory of Pandya King and soon conquered the Vadumbas.  He swept away all the traces of Pallavas power, but received a set back at the hands of Rashtrakutas.

Raja Raja Chola

The powerful ruler of the Chola kingdom was Raja Raja - the Great.  He ruled from 985 - 1014 AD.  His army conquered Venginadu, Gangapadi, Tadigaipadi, Nolambavadi, Kudamalai-nadu, Kollam, Kalingam, Ilamandalam of the Singalas.  His first triumph was achieved early in his reign by destroying the Navy of Cheras at Trivendrum.  He annexed north part of Ceylon to his kingdom and sacked Anuradhapuram.  Polonnaruva was made his capital of the Chola province of Ceylon. Political divisions of the Western Ganga's Gangavadi, Tadigaivadi and Nolambavadi were conquered in 991 AD and it remained under them for the next century.  Union of Eastern and Western Chalukyas was stopped by helping Eastern Chalukya ruler .  Towards the end of the reign, the Cholas was attacked by the Western Chalukyas, but Raja-raja Chola won the war.

 One of the greatest rulers of India, who was not only a mighty conqueror, but also a most efficient administrator was Rajaraja I (985-1014). He extended Chola power upto the Tungabhadra in the north and Sri Lanka in the south. Prof. Nilakanta Sastri states, “The thirty years of Rajaraja’s rule constitute the formative period in the history of the Chola monarchy. In the organisation of the civil service and the army, in art and architecture, in religion and literature, we see at work powerful forces newly liberated by the progressive imperialism of the time. A relative small state at his accession that had hardly recovered from the disasters of Rashtrakuta invasion the Chola kingdom had by the end of Rajaaja’s rule grown to be an extensive and well knit empire efficiently organized and administered, rich in resources possessed of a powerful standing army, well tried, equal to the greatest enterprises. More wonderful than the work of this great monarch have been his personality. Rajaraja conquered Ceylon and Maldives islands.”

Rajaraja’s coinage is best known to South Indian numismats. It is found in several thousands. It looks as though for several centuries his coins were the main currencies circulating in Tamilnadu.
Two types of his coins are well known. Type 1, bears on both the sides of the ‘bow-tiger-fish’ emblem and the legend ‘Sri Raja Raja’ written beneath in Nagari characters.The second type carries a standing man on the obverse and a seated figure on the reverse with the Nagari legend ‘Sri Raja Raja’ beneath his left arm. It is the later variety that is found in several thousands. Both these types are found in gold, silver and copper.

Rajaraja’s wars and political annexations have a direct baring on his coinage. First he reduced the Pandyas and Kerala. Then the north-west Gangapadi, Nulambapadi, Tadigaipadi, and Rattaspadi were conquered. In theGengi kingdom he adopted a different policy. He gave shelter to the legitimate successor of Dhanarnava (who was killed by Jata Chola Bhima) Saktivarman and Vimaladitya. He restored Saktivarman to the throne of Vengi and gave his daughter Kundavai in marriage to Vimaladitya, the brother of Sktivarman. Vimaladitya ascended the throne around 1011 after his brother. Under Rajaraja the Vengi kingdom enjoyed his protection.

A point of interest discussed in detail by numismatists concerns the abstract standing or seated figure portrayed in the obverse and reverse of this coinage. What does this figure represent? It seems to us that the figure portrays of the king, as found in Kushan coins. This should have been influenced by Roman coins. The object shown in the hand seems to be a flower, also as found in Kushan coins. While Kushan coins figure a portrait of the ruler, the standing and seated figure of the South Indian coins are clearly abstractions. But why is this portrayal found in Kushan coin not used until the 10th century A.D. and why does this figure dominate South Indian coinage till the 16th century? It is not possible to explain this.

There are a number of types with the legend Sri Rajaraja in Nagari characters. Not all the coins were issued by Rajaraja I. It seems that the same type of coins with the same name was minted in subsequent a certain amount of detrioration. But the largest number of coins found in Tamilnadu are of this type; on the obverse the standing royal figure is seen and on the reverse are the seated figure and below its left arm the legend Sri. Rajaraja in Nagari.

SPECIAL ISSUES OF RAJARAJA

There are three types with this name which require special mention. In all the three types one side carries the same device viz. a seated figure, and below is left arm the nagari legend ”Sri Rajaraja.” On the obverse the devices vary. In one type there is the standing figure and below his left arm is a seated tiger. In another type there is the standing figure with under his left arma fish shown vertically. The third variety carris the standing figure and below his left arm is a pada (foot) mark. A slight variation in the type is the presence of a bow in addition to the foot.

The fact that in all these cases the name “Sri Rajaraja” is found shows that these were issues of Rajaraja I. But the various symbols represented show a definite pattern of thinking. I have suggested in a recent article that Rajaraja deliberately introduced these symbols for circulation in the different territories he conquered. For example the coin with a fish was meant for circulation in Pandimandalam. The coin with the tiger was meant for circulation in Chola territory. The coin with a foot was obviously intended for circulation in the Kerala country, called the Thiruvadi country. The presence of the bow also confirms our presumption. In one instance Desikachari refers to a coin bearing a boar in the place of a seated tiger below the left arm of the seated figure. It is significant that this adoption of the royal crest of the respective regions shows the respect the ruler had for the conquered regions and at the same time introduces his name. Such an approach is quite in conformity with Rajaraja’s personalityand character. Rajaraja changed the name off each country. Tondaimandalam was changed of Jayamkonda chola mandalam; the pandya country was called show the innovatie and personal imprint of the great monarch.(19)

MURALIDHARA & HORSE RIDER

There are two other varieties bearing the name ‘Rajaraja’ that show same variation and both the variations are significant. In one there is the seated figure, below whose arm is the legend Rajaraja. On the other side is shown a figure of Muralidhara Krishna. On the other type is seen a rider on the back of a galloping horse. Rajaraja was a great Siva bhakta and was called Siva Cudamani but his benefactions to all faiths are so well known, that under his patronage, Vaishnavism, Buddhism and Jainism flourished alike. But except this one coin showing Muralidhara Krishna, no other coin shows a God or religious motifs. So the ascription of this coin to Rajaraja-I may not go unchallenged. However no other explanation is possible at present.
Rajendra-I

Rajendra-I founded his new capital at Gangaikonda Cholapuram.  He set up Vaishnava centre and the Vedic college for teaching Vedas.  He had a friendly relationship with the China emperor, and had a peaceful reign of 32 years.  He extended the territory inherited from his father, and subdued the power of Pandyas and Keralas.  He performed Asvamedha sacrifice too.  He was very successful in the beginning but later on he lost his life in the famous battle of Koppam on the Tungabhadra.  The next ruler Rajendra-II (1052-1064 AD) just managed to maintain the Chola empire though he had to struggle with the troubling Chalukyas.

The one Chola ruler, who from the time he was crowned as young prince in 1018 A.D. , till his death in 1055 A.D., spent all his time and energy in war, and died in the war front, was Rajadhiraja I., he son and successor of Rajendra I. Rajadhiraja was more a ruthless fighter than his father. In fact he seems to have been mainly responsible for most of the victories of his father. His prasastis refer to his ruthlessness in dealing with his captured monarchs. Among all the Chola rulers of the Imperial line, he was the only ruler, who performed an Asvamedha yaga.

One gold coin with the legend ‘Rajadhiraja’ has come to light. It shows on the obverse a standing figure and the leend Sri Rajadhiraja’. On the reverse it bears the seated human figure in front of a seated tiger(21). This in all probability was an issue of Rajadhiraja I.

A few types of silver coins found in north Canara bearing the legend Rajadhiraja, Maharajadhiraja and simply Raja are assigned to him.(22) While the reverse of the coin has the legend in Nagari reading Maha Rajadhi Raja, the obverse according to V.P. bears the figure of a dagger on top. There are also other types in the same hoard without giving the name, but various sizes. These are also said to be of various sizes. But judging from the illustration reproduced it is seen that typologically these varieties are not the issues of Cholas. The lion depicted with a dagger, even if it is taken to be a tiger has nothing in common with the Chola tiger. After the sangam age, the Cholas, represented their tiger mostly as a seated figure. The figure on the coin under discussion also resemble a lion than a tiger and seems to me an issue of the Western Indian dynasty, than the Chola. The find spot also seems to confirm our suggestion.

Vira Rajendra

Vira Rajendra (1064 - 1070 AD) was the elder brother of Rajendra-II.  He succeeded his brother to reign for the next seven years.  He met the invasion of Chalukya King and defeated the Chalukya ruler.  He reconquered Vengi and foiled the efforts of Vijayabahu of Ceylon who was trying to drive the Cholas out of Ceylon.  When Someswara-II succeeded the Chalukyas throne, Rajendra made some incursions but later on built a friendly ties by giving his daughter to Vikramaditya.  Soon after the death of Vira Rajendra in 1070 AD, there was a contest for the throne and Adhi-Rajendra, the heir apparent took the throne.  He had a short uneventful reign, Vijayabahu assumed independence in Ceylon.

Kulottunga - I (1070 - 1120 AD)

Rajendra-II succeeded Adhirajendra under the title Kulottunga Chola.  In about 1073, Kalachuri King Yasahkarana invaded Vengi but did not gain anything.  Pandyas and Chera's attack were put down by Kulottunga.  The southern Kalinga revolt were put down too.  In about 1118 AD, the Viceroy of Vengi - the Vikramaditya VI took control of Vengi from Chola and thus succeeded in separating the Cholas from the Eastern Chalukyas.  Gangavadi and Nolambavadi were lost to Hoysala's Vishnuvardhana.

 A few gold coins found in the Nellore district Kavaliavalli Village are said to carry the tiger and the fish on the one side, and on the other the legend Sunga in Tamil characters with the numerical figures 27, 31 and 34.(23) In one type of this variety along with the tiger and fish the legend Kanchi is said to be found in Tamil. While the other side carries the word Sunga(24). Another type of the same variety is said to carry the legend ‘Ne’ in Tamil taken to stand for ‘Nellore’.

Kulottunga I was certainly the master of Kanchi and Nellore region. He had a palace at Kanchi. The Tamil work kalingattupparani extolling his greatness, mention that his commander Karunakara Tondaiman conquered the Kalinga country even while Kulottunga was camping at Kanchi. There is a graphic description of he palace of Kulottunga at Kanchi in the same work. In fact all the Chola monarchs had their palace at Kanchi. But if the reading is correct, the word ‘Kanchi’ would indicate that in 12th century A.D., the custom of indicating the place of minting the coin has come into vogue. Similarly the word ‘Ne’ standing for Nellore. Nellore was equally an important centre and the rulers of Nellore of 12-13th century call themselves Nellore puravaradhisvara

Another coin which is attributed to Kulottunga also needs consideration. It carries on the obverse the usual standing royal figure and on the reverse the seated figure with a Tamil legend said to read Kulottu(nga). Biddaulp reads the legend as Kuna. Chattopadhyaya holds the reading as unlikely. It is the same coin illustrated as No. 140 by Elliot who read it as Kuma Pandya. It is seen from the illustration that only two letters are visible which read “Kula”. It is absolutely clear that there is no possibility of reading the second letter ‘lo’ which would require the curved character before ‘la’ if it is to be read as ‘lo’. The reading is only ‘Kula’ and so the coin cannot be attributed to Kulottunga. Further Paleographially the letter ‘Ku’ seems to be later and

Vikrama Chola (1120 - 1135 AD)

The next successor, the son of Kulottunga-I restored the Chola power by reconquering Vengi and by taking control of part of Gangavadi.  His reign was somewhat peaceful to his subjects though there were floods and famines in the South Arcot. The Hoysala expansion took control of Chola power slowly and subsequently.  The last rulers namely Kulottunga - II, Rajaraja - II, Rajadhiraja - III could not stop the Hoysalas annexation of Chola Kingdom.  Cholas hold on Pandyan kingdom had already weakened.  In about 1243, the Pallava chief declared independence.  The Kakatiyas and Hoysalas partitioned among themselves the territory of the Chola empire and Chola empire ceased to exist for ever.

YUDDHAMALLA

A gold coin, smaller in size, bearing on the obverse the ‘bowtigher-fish device, and on the reverse a two line legend reading “Yuddhamalla” is also noticed. This has been attributed to Rajendra I. It could have been struck at the time of the marriage of his daughter to Chalukya Rajaraja Narendra, the father of Rajendra who was known as Kulottunga, subsequently. Quoting this view of Biddaulp, Chattopadhyaya rightly points out the lack of evidence to support this view point. However, as he rightly points out, it is not unlikely that it was issued by Rajendra I. in belongs to ‘Kulasekhara Pandya’.

 
COINAGE

In the later part of the tenth century, Karnataka, Tamilnadu and Sri Lanka kingdoms adopted coinage once again after a brief break of four centuries.  But this time, it triggered off with the gold coinage to initiate major transactions.  Soon silver and copper coinage were minted in plenty to meet the day to day needs of commodities.

Raja raja Chola struck coins both in Sri Lanka and India.  They differed much in fabric, style and in the gold purity.  The monetary economy was well defined with the Imperial Cholan conquest.  In Tamilnadu, Cholas introduced coinage much prior to Raja raja's campaign in Sri Lanka.  They adopted 'Tiger facing two fishes' as their emblem on the coinage.  Having developed a strong navy, they traded with Sri Lanka and soon conquered them too.  They also set voyages as far as the islands of Indonesia and Maldives through ocean.  Subsequently they felt the need to mint coins to trade!
Chola's coinage issues were in all the three metals Gold, Silver and Copper.  Though the coinage was mainly destined for general currency, very few commemoratives could be observed.  Uttama Chola struck silver with the royal emblem of "Tiger facing two fishes" on the obverse and the Nagari legend "Uttama Chola".  Raja Raja struck gld fanams bearing the legend Yuddha Malla" on the obverse and the usual insignia on the reverse.  He also struck silver and gold kahavanus with the standing king on the obverse and the seated king on the reverse.  Nagari legend "Raja Raja" surrounded him on the obverse of some types, and the reverse image of some types.

Rajendra Chola struck coins with the legend "Sri Rajendrah" beneath the usual insignia on both reverse and obverse.  The copper Kasu of Chola started off with the reign of Raja Raja, which passed onto next generations (even Kulottunga) with the same standard "Standing King on the obverse" and "Seated King on the reverse". Sometime legend "Raja Raja" and sometime the legend "Ku appears on the coinage surroundig the image.  These coins can be seen abundantly as the same type of coins with little deformed images were circulated till the Cholas ceased to exist.

The history of the Imperial Cholas begins around 850 A.D. with the advent of Vijayalaya. Till recent times the name of Vijayalaya’s father was unknown. The recently found Velanjeri copper plate of Parantaka Chola gives his name as Orriyuran. He is praised as a great king. Judging from the name assumed by several of his subordinates his claim to greatness is not unwarranted.
Vijayalaya, the great conqueror who established the Imperial Chola line captured Tanjore, fortified the city and consecrated an image of goddess Nisumbasudani. He is praised in later literature as one who had, won several battles. From this time onwards, the Cholas started adopting the titles alternately Parakesari and Rajakesari. Till we come to the time of Rajaraja I, the Cholas mentioned only their title in their epigraphs without giving their names. It makes the identification of the early Chola rulers open to doubt. But at least a few of the inscriptions found in the Tondaimandalam region belong to Vijayalaya.

Vijayalaya’s position remained somewhat subordinae to the Pallavas. But his son Aditya threw off the Pallava yoke, and soon established Chola power upto Tondaimand near Kalahasti (near Madras). In the south he reached the limit of Pudukottai territory, but not beyond. Aditya also conquered the Kongu, and is said to have brought gold to enrich the Chidambaram temple. He built innumerable stone temples, dedicated to Siva all along the banks of the Kaveri. S. R. Balasubramaniam has recently done yeoman service by identifying several of Aditya’s temples.

Parantaka was, like his father a great conqueror. His conquests were at the expense of the Adityas of Madurai, followed by a victory over Sri Lanka. He assumed the title Maduraiyim Ilamum Konda, i.e. the conqueror of Madurai and Lanka. In Sanskrit his title appears as ‘Madurantakan’. After Parantaka many rulers followed with varying fortunes. The immediate predecessor of Rajaraja, the great was Uttama Chola, who also had the title Madurantaka.” The earliest Chola coin which could be definitely attributed to a chola ruler is that of Uttama. His territory extended upto Madras in the north and to Madurai in the south. At least two issues of this ruler are now identified.

UTTAMACHOLA

The first type is a gold coin unfortunately lost. But Elliot has preserved a good illustration of it. His description reads;(2) “No. 151 gold coin lost; facsimile in wood cut; weigh 50 to 60 grains. Obverse and reverse exactly the same; a tiger seated to the left; opposite it a fish etc. The legend running around reads in grantha characters ‘Uttama Chola”. This has been rightly identified with the issue of Uttama Chola.

I have published the other coin with a proper reading in Damilica I. The coin which was imperfectly read all these years bears close resemblance to the earlier one carrying seated tiger and a fish with the legend Matirantakam running around it. As mentioned earlier Matirantakan was one of the titles of Uttama Chola. In early inscriptions the city of ‘Madurai’ was called Matirai. So this coin has also been taken as an issue of Uttamachola.

THE MADAI

“Several inscriptions of the Chola period give the names of coins that were under circulation. From these we gather that the coins were called after the ruling kings either by the names or titles such as Rajarajan Madai, Rajendran Madai. The earliest coin so referred to by name is Madurantakan Madai. It is likely that the coin referred to as Madurantakan Madai is identical with the present coin “Damilica Page 102).
Chattopadhyaya, agreeing with my suggestion, states, “The legend which has so long baffled scholars has now satisfactorily been read as Matirantakam which is the equivalent of Madurantakan. It is thus likely that the type is identical with the Madurantakan Madai of the epigraph and that it belongs to the period of Uttama Chola(16)

UTTAMACHOLA – NAGARI

The third type of coins attributed to Uttama Chola made of silver or copper. On one side the coin bears a seated tiger, two fish and a bow. These are shown on a pedestal. Above this emblem are seen a parasol and two chowris. On the reverse is the legend ‘Uttama Chola’ in Nagari characters. Opinion is divided among scholars about the author of this issue. Prof. K. A. Nilakanta Sastri assigns it to Rajendra I, while Chattopadhyaya holds that it could be an Uttama issue.

BOW-TIGER-FISH EMBLEM

The practice of a ruler adopting all the three emblems was known even in the age of Silapadhikaram. The Chra ruler, Sengut tuvan is said to have carved, these three crests on the Himalayas.(17) In another instance the same ruler is said to have sent an order baring the crests – ‘bow – fish – tiger’ said to be the seal of the Tamil land.(18)
If the ruler was a great conqueror, subduing the two other crowned kings of the Tamil country, he adopted all the three royal crests. In the coin under discussion the three emblems are under the same umbrella. This would suggest that both the Chera and the Pandya had been vanquished. While in the earlier coin of Uttama, only the fish and tiger are seen, in the present case all the three are seen. The conquest of the Chera was accomplished by Rajaraja I, and not under Uttama, his predecessor. It is probably due to this reason that Profesosr Nilakanta Sastri thought that this could be an issue subsequent to Rajaraja I, and assigned it to Rajendra I. The two earlier coins are typologically of the same group, while the later is different. It is not unlikely that the later also was an issue of Uttama Chola.

A point of importance is that for the first time in Tamil coins we find a Nagari legend. Why and how it was introduced? it is not possible to explain at this stage.

SPECIAL ISSUES OF RAJARAJA

There are three types with this name which require special mention. In all the three types one side carries the same device viz. a seated figure, and below is left arm the nagari legend ”Sri Rajaraja.” On the obverse the devices vary. In one type there is the standing figure and below his left arm is a seated tiger. In another type there is the standing figure with under his left arma fish shown vertically. The third variety carris the standing figure and below his left arm is a pada (foot) mark. A slight variation in the type is the presence of a bow in addition to the foot.
The fact that in all these cases the name “Sri Rajaraja” is found shows that these were issues of Rajaraja I. But the various symbols represented show a definite pattern of thinking. I have suggested in a recent article that Rajaraja deliberately introduced these symbols for circulation in the different territories he conquered. For example the coin with a fish was meant for circulation in Pandimandalam. The coin with the tiger was meant for circulation in Chola territory. The coin with a foot was obviously intended for circulation in the Kerala country, called the Thiruvadi country. The presence of the bow also confirms our presumption. In one instance Desikachari refers to a coin bearing a boar in the place of a seated tiger below the left arm of the seated figure. It is significant that this adoption of the royal crest of the respective regions shows the respect the ruler had for the conquered regions and at the same time introduces his name. Such an approach is quite in conformity with Rajaraja’s personalityand character. Rajaraja changed the name off each country. Tondaimandalam was changed of Jayamkonda chola mandalam; the pandya country was called show the innovatie and personal imprint of the great monarch.(19)

MURALIDHARA & HORSE RIDER

There are two other varieties bearing the name ‘Rajaraja’ that show same variation and both the variations are significant. In one there is the seated figure, below whose arm is the legend Rajaraja. On the other side is shown a figure of Muralidhara Krishna. On the other type is seen a rider on the back of a galloping horse. Rajaraja was a great Siva bhakta and was called Siva Cudamani but his benefactions to all faiths are so well known, that under his patronage, Vaishnavism, Buddhism and Jainism flourished alike. But except this one coin showing Muralidhara Krishna, no other coin shows a God or religious motifs. So the ascription of this coin to Rajaraja-I may not go unchallenged. However no other explanation is possible at present.

RAJENDRA I-GANGAIKONDA

Rajaraja was succeeded by his might son Rajendra I, who perhaps was the only ruler of India to carry his arms to the far east across the sea and won several victories. So he assumed the title Kadaram Konda Chola. What other Cholas could not accomplish with reference to Sri Lanka Rajendra was able to achieve. He brought the entire Ceylon under his control. In India itself he raced across eastern coast and conquered upto the Bangaladesh and marked his victory by bringing the sacred river of Ganges and assumed the title ‘Gangaikonda Chola’. This particular victory of Rajendra himself was proved to be of great interest for he built a new capital and named it Gangaikondacholapuram. The Chalukyas in the west were no match to him. From 1012 to 1044, this mightiest conqueror kept the banner of his family flying high over several kingdoms.

Two series of coins which could definitely be assigned to Rajendra are well known. Both the group show the ‘bow-tiger-fish’ emblem on both the sides. The legend in one series reads Sri Rajendra’ and in the other “Sri Gangaikonda Chola.” Though these two varieties are not so frequently met with, yet they are fairly known.

Another type of coin attributed to Rajendra I shows on the obverse the ‘bow-tiger-two fish’ emblem, flanked by lamp stands and topped by the royal parasol and the chowris. Below this is the Nagari legend reading ‘Sri Raja Rajendra’. On the reverse is the seated figure and to his right is shown a seated tiger(29). 

RajaRaja Chola : 985 - 1014
Copper massa coins

Six different copper massa of selected from the statistically analysed sample of 100 coins of RajaRaja Chola (985-1014) of Thanjavur in TamilNadu. Most of the coins of the lot were of Indian Type with the four balls with a dot in center and cresent above on the right hand side of the standing king. One was of Lanka type with solid ball is probably from the period of Chola occupation of Lanka.

Obverse : Standing king with head to right. Holds an item in left hand which is bent and held up to his face. The right hand is extended outwards and bent downwards over the temple lamp on left to high alter. A group of four spheres on right, surmounted by crescent.
Reverse : Seated king on left facing right holds a conch shell in left hand which is bent and held up to his face. The right hand is extended outwards and bent downwards over knee. Legend beneath on right in 3 lines. Sri Raja Raja in Nagari script

 

On obverse Jasmine flower in left hand, alter visible, spheres with dots,
On reverse Ra below Ja.

On obverse Jasmine bud in left hand, fish facing up hanging from right hand rather than alter, filled spheres,
On reverse Ra level with Ja.

On obverse Sphere with dot in left hand, spheres with dots,
On reverse Ra lot below Ja.

On obverse five petal flower or banana in left hand, spheres with dots,
With the two fingers of hand appearing as legs it look like a stick human. Could this be a medieval die-cutter's hidden expression of oppression by an evil Raja On reverse Ra below Ja.

On obverse Sun and Moon symbol in left hand, spheres with dots, lamp off flan
On reverse Ra lot below Ja, appears to be double struck.

On obverse filled sphere in left hand, spheres with dots,
On reverse Ra below Ja.

Each of the coins illustrated above are different varieties of the same basic design, which was later copied by the traditional Lanka type massa.
Except the second from top have text Rabelow Ja which was used by Mitchiner. It seems more natural to classify using the item in left hand on the obverse as is used to classify gold kahavanu found in Lanka.

For 30 of the coins the variety based on what is held in the hand was indeterminate, From the remaing 70 coins in which the item held up to face on obverse was visible within the struck flan, 67 was of Jasmine flower type with a dot visible in center of sphere in 19 of the higher grade coins among them. In lower grade/cruder diecut coins the same symbol appeares as a filled sphere or ball. I found only one clear example each of varieties with the interesting five petal flower and with Sun and Moon symbol.

Rajaraja Chola (985-1014) invaded Lanka in 990 AD and conquered the northern half. Lanka regained independence from Chola occupation in 1070 under Vijaya-bahu (1055-1110).

Years	985-1014
Value	1 Kahavanu
Metal	Gold
Weight	4.38 g
Diameter	20 mm
Shape	Round
Demonetized	yes
References	MNI# 729

Obverse

Seated king facing right with legend on right, beneath his raised arm: Sri Raja Raja.

Lettering: Sri Raja Raja

Reverse

Standing king with lotus on the left a group of spheres on right, surmounted by crescent.

Edge

Plain

Comments

Ceylon type Issue of Rajaraja Chola (After conquest of Ceylon)

Years	985-1014
Value	2 Fanams (2)
Metal	Gold
Weight	0.74 g
Diameter	7.43 mm
Shape	Round
Demonetized	yes

Obverse

King standing looking right

Reverse

Nagari legend 'Jaya Konda' (The Victorious)

Years	840-1295
Value	1 Stater (1)
Metal	Gold
Weight	0.4 g
Shape	Round
References	Fr# 1

Obverse

Ruler standing

Reverse

Ruler seated

Chola Kings, Uttama Chola, (973-985 AD), Silver Kahavanu, 3.94g. Obv: Chola tiger seated right, an umbrella and a pair of upright fish with bow and lamp behind. Rev: Nagari legend Uttama/Cholah in two lines, MCSI-II 323.

Very Fine+, Very Scarce.

Chola Kings, Raja Raja I (985-1014 AD), Base Gold Kahavanu, issued after circa 1007, 4.45g. Obv: King half seated with raised arm on right; Devanagari legend beneath raised arm Sri/Raja/Raja. Rev: Standing man with lamp on left and group of pellets on right, MCIS-II 337.

Very Fine, Scarce.

Chola Kings, Rajendra Chola I (Gangaikonda Chola) (1012-1044 AD), Gold Kahavanu, Uncertain Tamilnadu Mint, 4.4g. Seated tiger with two fish on obverse and reverse, MCSI-II 332; MNI 741.

Extremely Fine, Very Rare.

Chola Kings, Raja Raja I (985-1014 AD), Gold ⅛ Kahavanu, 0.30g. Obv: Dynastic emblem of bow, umbrella, seated tiger and pair of fish. Rev: Nagari legend Yuddha/Malla, MCSI-II 331.

Very Fine, Scarce.