An exclusive study of Sangam age and its coinage- 300 BC - 200 AD

The word Sangam is the Tamil form of the Sanskrit word Sangha and in this particular context, the Tamil Sangam is understood as an academy of poets and bards patronized by the Pandyan rulers with its headquarters at Madurai. It is very difficult to precisely date this Sangam age. The period between 300 BC and AD 300 is generally called the Sangam age. Likewise, it is also very difficult to fix the chronology of the works of the Sangam age. N. Subramanyam is of the opinion that the Sangam literature is attributable to pre-Pallavan age.

The Sangam Age constitutes an important chapter in the history of South India. According to Tamil legends, there existed three Sangams (Academy of Tamil poets) in ancient Tamil Nadu popularly called Muchchangam. These Sangams flourished under the royal patronage of the Pandyas. The first Sangam, held at Then Madurai, was attended by gods and legendary sages but no literary work of this Sangam was available. 

The second Sangam was held at Kapadapuram but the all the literary works had perished except Tolkappiyam. 

The third Sangam at Madurai was founded by Mudathirumaran. It was attended by a large number of poets who produced voluminous literature but only a few had survived. These Tamil literary works remain useful sources to reconstruct the history of the Sangam Age.

Many historian consider the First two sangam age as mythical as the traditional dates greatly are not in accordance with the Historical dating and Each sangam age spanned around 2000 Years and the first sangam age according to the traditional dates started before 5000 or 6000 BC, at that point of time the four river valley civilization were in their nascent state or yet to be started.

According to the sangam poems the First Sangam age was based in the city of south Madurai and the Second sangam age was based in the city of the Kapatapurm but these two cities were believed to be destroyed by the floods and rain and the latter sangam age was based in the city of Present day Madurai city in Tamil Nadu. (The Coromandel Coast of the South India are susceptible to Tsunami waves.

The corpus of Sangam literature includes Tolkappiyam, Ettutogai, Pattuppattu, Pathinenkilkanakku, and the two epics – Silappathigaram and Manimegalai. Tolkappiyam authored by Tolkappiyar is the earliest of the Tamil literature. It is a work on Tamil grammar but it provides information on the political and socioeconomic conditions of the Sangam period. The Ettutogai or Eight Anthologies consist of eight works – Aingurunooru, Narrinai, Aganaooru, Purananooru, Kuruntogai, Kalittogai, Paripadal and Padirruppattu. The Pattuppattu or Ten Idylls consist of ten works – Thirumurugarruppadai, Porunararruppadai, Sirupanarruppadai, Perumpanarruppadai, Mullaippattu, Nedunalvadai, Maduraikkanji, Kurinjippatttu, Pattinappalai and Malaipadukadam. Both Ettutogai and Pattuppattu were divided into two main groups – Aham (love) and Puram (valor).

Pathinenkilkanakku contains eighteen works mostly dealing with ethics and morals. The most important among them is Tirukkural authored by Thiruvalluvar. Silappathigaram written by Elango Adigal and Manimegalai by Sittalai Sattanar also provides valuable information on the Sangam polity and society.

In addition to the Sangam literature, the Greek authors like Megasthenes, Strabo, Pliny and Ptolemy mention the commercial contacts between the West and South India. The Asokan inscriptions mention the Chera, Chola and Pandya rulers on the south of the Mauryan empire. The Hathikumbha inscription of Kharavela of Kalinga also mentions about Tamil kingdoms. The excavations at Arikkamedu, Poompuhar, Kodumanal and other places reveal the overseas commercial activities of the Tamils.

The chronology of the Sangam literature is still a disputed topic among the scholars. The sheet anchor of Sangam chronology lies in the fact that Gajabhagu II of Sri Lanka and Cheran Senguttuvan of the Chera dynasty were contemporaries. This is confirmed by Silappathigaram as well as the Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa. Also the Roman coins issued by Roman emperors of the first century AD were found in plenty in various places of Tamil Nadu. Therefore, the most probable date of the Sangam literature has been fixed between the third century BC to third century AD on the basis of literary, archaeological and numismatic evidences.

The chief towns and seaports and the foreign merchandise of the Tamil country, as described in the Tamil poems correspond exactly with those given in the works of Pliny, Ptolemy and in the Periplus Maris Erythrsei. Pliny died in 79 AD; and had completed his Natural History two years previously. The unknown author of the Periplus was a native of Egypt, and wrote his book after the time of Augustus Caesar, and before the kingdom of the Nabathceans was overthrown by the Romans. A more definite indication of his date is furnished by his mentioning Zoskales as the king reigning in his time over the Auxumitae. This Zoskales is identified with Za-Hakale who must have been king of Abyssinia from 77 to 89 AD.

Buddhism was paramount, and non-Aryan races were in power, almost everywhere throughout India. To the Aryans it was a period of humiliation, and to Brahminism one of painful struggle for existence. When, in later years, Brahminism was again favored by royalty, it appears to have exerted all its energy, to erase every trace of the rival faith and foreign dominion. Accordingly the Sanscrit literature of the first century of the Christian era is now a perfect blank. Curiously enough, a considerable portion of the Tamil literature of that very period has come down to the present, almost intact, and reveals the condition of not only the Tamils, but also of other peoples who inhabited the rest of India in that remote age.

There were Buddhists in the Tamil country, but they had set up no images of Buddha and had no priests ; there were Nigranthas who called the Buddhists heretics, but who had not commenced the worship of their Saints or Tirthankaras; there were temples dedicated to Siva, Vishnu and Subramanya, but there were also other shrines in which the worship of Indra and Baladeva was continued; there were Brahmins who wore the sacred thread and called themselves the "twice-born" but neither kings nor merchants sought this distinction; there were Tamils living in walled towns and cities, but in some parts of the country they still led the life of nomads and had no settled habitation.

Towards the end of the third century AD, the Sangam period slowly witnessed its decline. The Kalabhras occupied the Tamil country for about two and a half centuries. There is little information about the Kalabhra rule. Jainism and Buddhism became prominent during this period. The Pallavas in the northern Tamil Nadu and Pandyas in southern Tamil Nadu drove the Kalabhras out of the Tamil country and established their rule.

Tamilham as described by its literature is the region between the hills of Venkatam and Kanyakumari. This region is a combination of diverse eco-zones of hills surrounded by forests, undulating terrain, wetlands, long sea coast, pastures and arid zones. This region was under the political control of the three principal powers, the Cheras, the Cholas and the Pandyas. These were only chiefdoms and not kingdom.

The Sangam literature or heroic poetry refers to the concept of ‘Aithinai’ or five eco-zones and these five eco-zones are:

(a) Kurunji or hilly backwoods,

(b) Palai or arid zone,

(c) Mullai or pastoral tracts,

(d) Maruttam or wetland, and

(e) Neital the sea coast.

The occupations and lifestyle the people of these eco-zones is varied. Hunting and gathering was the occupation of Kurunji inhabitants. The people living in Palai depended on plundering and cattle-lifting. Shifting cultivation and animal husbandry were the occupation of the people of the Mullai zone. The people of Marutam pursued plough agriculture, and fishing and salt-making were the occupations of the people of Neital eco-zones. We also notice bartering of goods produced by one eco-zone people with other eco-zone inhabitants. Gradually, these small social groups living in different eco-zones became integrated through interaction and interde­pendence.

Social stratification based on ‘high’ and low’ groups took shape in course of time. Besides agriculture, there were other professions such as blacksmiths, carpenters and weavers. Most of the people followed old tribal rituals of religious worship and cult practices, and the society was not priest-dominated. Trade and commerce was possible because of surplus production of goods; we come across traders – Unianan or salt merchant, Kogla vanikan or corn merchant, Amvai vanikan or textile merchant and Pon vanikan or gold merchant.

Tolkappiyam, the earliest Tamil grammar text indicates that Varna system entered into Tamilham as the above-mentioned traders were given the status of Vaisyas and the chieftains of the Maruttam region started claiming descent from Suryavamsa or Chandravamsa. Thus, in the agrarian zones, we notice amalgamation of old tribal practice and Brahmanical ideas. The economy of Tamilham depended on trade and commerce besides agricultural production.

There existed three levels of trade:

(1) Local,

(2) Overland, and

(3) Overseas.

In the local trade sphere, barter was the most common mode of transaction to obtain perishable commodities of daily use; paddy and salt were the only two items that had an exchange rate. Long distance overland trade and long distance sea trade resulted in the growth of urban centres as well as seaports. There was a flourishing trade between Rome and Tamilham. Tamilham also had commercial contacts with Sri Lanka and South-East Asia. Roman as well as Sri Lankan trade settlements are in evidence. Growth of trade and commerce led to the use of coins as medium of commerce in this period.

The coins may be divided into local and Roman coins. Sangam literature refers to locally available coins of Kasu, Kanam, Pon and Venpon but coins with these names have not been found so far. Roman coins generally of gold and silver and rarely, copper coins were in circulation.

In Tamilham of this period, ruling chieftains and kings derived considerable income from trade and commerce from toll or Ulka collected by agents from the traders. Revenue was collected in cash and kind as well. Artisans paid a tax knovm as Karukara. Coming to weight and measures, in Tamilham, land was measured as Ma and Veil. Large measure called Ambanam, and small measures such as Nali, Ulakan znd Alakka were prevalent.

Sangam literature and other literary texts refer to rural exchange centres, internal market, towns and port towns. Inland towns like Uraiyur located near modern Tiruchirapalli, Kanchi or Kanchipuram and Madurai developed into rudimentary market centres. Besides, there were port towns like Puhar or Kaveripattinam, Arikamedu, Colobil, Musiri and Tyndis. Bacare and Neleyamda were centres of maritime trade. It is also said that Musiris was a busy centre with a port crowded with large warehouses and markets.

These port towns did not have close links with rural or local exchange centres, as they catered to the needs of the nobility and the ruling group. The vitality of these depended on the success of foreign trade and when overseas trade declined, these centres too declined and disappeared as port tovms or Pattinams.

Until 6th century AD, or the rise of the Pallavas, Tamilham was under the rule of Kalabaras or Kalappalar. We can conclude with the statement of K.A. Nilakanta Sastri that the literature of the Sangam age gives an unusually complex and true picture of the life of the people of Tamilham in the beginning of the historical period.

Trade

The Tamils of the Sangam age had trading contacts with the Mediterranean world (Greece and Rome), Egypt, China, Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka. The literary works like Silappadikaram, Manimekalai and Pattinappalai frequently refer to the contact with the Greek and Roman traders. This period marked the height of the Indo-Roman trade. The Periplus of Erythrean Sea and other accounts of foreigners such as those of Pliny, Ptolemy, Strabo and Petronius mention various ports and the articles traded during the period. The archaeological excavations and explorations at various sites have also yielded the artefacts confirming to the trading relations between the Tamil regions and other countries. The discovery of coin hoards at many places also attest this fact.

The Sangam texts mention prominently only the ports of Musiri, Puhar (Kaveripattinam) and Korkai, the three great ports of the three great rulers of the times. However, the Periplus refers to the ports of Tondi, Musiri and Comari (Cape Comorin / Kanyakumari), Colchi (Korkai), Poduke (Arikamedu) and Sopatma. According to Periplus there were three types of vessels in use in South India. These included small coasting vessels, large coasting vessels and ocean-going ships. There is also the mention of large vessels called Colandia sailing from the Tamil Coast to the Ganges.

The commodities exported to Rome fetched high returns. Living animals like tiger, leopard, monkeys and peacocks were exported to Rome. The chief animal products of export included ivory and pearl. Plant products like aromatics and spices (pepper, ginger, cardamom, cloves, nutmegs, etc.), coconut, plantain, jaggery, teak wood, sandal wood, cotton cloth of special variety called argaru (from Uraiyur) were also among the chief exports. Mineral products like diamonds, beryl, steel, semiprecious stones, etc. were also exported from South India.

The main articles of import from Rome consisted of the coins, coral, wine, lead, tin and jewellery. The beads manufactured at many sites in South India in the contemporary period have been found at several sites of Southeast Asia. This suggests the maritime contacts between the two regions. There were settlements of the foreign traders in many towns.

However, it was not only the external trade, which added to the prosperity of the Tamils. Internal trade also flourished in the region with local networks of trade connecting different urban centres. Silappadikaram refers to the bazaar (marked) streets of Puhar while Maduraikkanji describes the market at Madurai, the Pandyan capital.

Besides the coastal ports or towns, the Tamil region also witnessed the growth of urban centres in the inland regions. The prominent among these were Madurai, Karur, Perur, Kodumanal, Uraiyur, Kanchipuram and others. While Korkai on the East Coast was famous for pearl fishing, Kodumanal in the interior part was known for its beryl. However, the trade was not confined to cities alone. The remotest villages were also linked with the trading network. The carts were the important mode of transport for inland trade. These were in use for either carrying goods or people including the traders.

The trade was mostly conducted through barter. The geographical diversity of the Tamil region necessitated the exchange of goods/products between the different regions. However, the use of coins for trading purpose can not be ruled out even in the context of internal trade.


Trade was a very important source of the royal revenue. Transit duties were collected from merchants who moved from one place to another. Spoils of war further added to the royal income. But the income from agriculture provided the real foundation of war and political set-up. However, the share of agricultural produce claimed and collected by the king is not specified.

Society

            The earliest phase of Sangam society as described by Tolkappiyam was based on the five-fold classification of the land — the hill, the pastoral, the agricultural, the desert and the coastal. Different kinds of people inhabited these various classified lands and developed certain fixed customs and ways of life as a result of their interaction with respective environment. The ecological variations also determined their occupations such as hunting, cultivation, pastoralism, plunder, fishing, diving, sailing, etc.

Social Composition

            Anthropological studies have shown that the earliest social element consisted of Negroid and Australoid groups with mixture of another racial stock which migrated from the earliest Mediterranean region. In its early phase these societies had small population and social classes were unknown. As a result there existed great unity among the people of each region, who moved freely among themselves and their ruler. The only classification Tamil society knew at this time was that of the arivar, ulavar, etc. based on their occupation such as the soldiers, hunters, shepherds, ploughmen, fishermen, etc.

The existence of numerous tribes and chieftains was seen in the later half of the Sangam age. The four Vedic varnaswere distinctly of a later period. But it is interesting to note that though the varna system was brought in by the immigrating Brahmanas (1st c.A.D), it did not include Khastriyas as in the north. Only the brahmins were the dvijas(twice born) who qualified for the sacred thread. There are references to the slaves known as adimai (one who lived at feet of another). The prisoners of war were reduced to slavery. There existed slave markets.

Women

The women like men, enjoyed certain freedom and went around the town freely, played on the seashore and river beds and joined in temple festivals as depicted in Sangam poems such as Kalittogai. However, the status of women was one of subordination to men, which was an aspect of the general philosophy of the contemporary period. This is well reflected in Kuruntogai which mentions that the wife was not expected to love the husband after evaluating his qualities but because of the fact of his being her husband. In other words, it was not possible for a wife to estimate her husband. Though there are references to women being educated and some of them becoming poetesses, this can not be applied to the general mass. They had no property rights but were treated with considerations. Women remained a widow or performedsati, which was considered almost divine. Marriage was a sacrament and not a contract. Tolkappiyam mentions eight forms of marriage of which the most common was the Brahma marriage. However, there are references to wooing or even elopements, which were followed by conventional marriage.

Prostitution was a recognised institution. However, the prostitutes were taken to be the intruders in peaceful family life. But they figure so prominently in the poems and enjoy such a social standing that there could be no doubt that the harlots of the Sangam age were not the degraded prostitutes of the modern times. Though texts like Kuruntogai refer to the harlots challenging wives and their relations, seducing men, the harlots gave their companions more of a cultural enjoyment than anything else.

Dress, Ornaments and Fashion

            The upper strata of society used dress of fine muslin and silk. Except for nobles and kings, men were satisfied with just two pieces of cloth — one below the waist and another adorning the head like a turban. Women used cloth only to cover below the waist. The tribal population was not in a position to do that even. The tribal women used leaves and barks to cover themselves.

            The men and women of Sangam age were fond of using oil, aromatic scents, coloured powders and paints, while the sandal paste was heavily applied on their chests. According to Silappadikaram women had pictures drawn on their bodies in coloured patterns and had their eyelids painted with a black pigment. The ornaments were worn round the neck and on arms and legs by both, the men and women. The chiefs and nobles wore heavy armlets and anklets while the ordinary women wore various other kinds of jewels. Valuable ornaments of gold and precious stones were used for decoration by men and women of upper strata whereas the poor class used bracelets made of conch-shell and necklaces made of coloured beads. Silappadikaram refers to a ceremonial hot bath in water heated with five kinds of seeds, ten kinds of astringents and thirty two kinds of scented plants, the drying of the hair over smoke of akhil and the parting of it into five parts for dressing. Men also grew long hair and wore the tuft tied together with a knot which was sometimes surrounded by a string of beads. Tamils were very much fond of flowers and women used to decorate their hair with flowers, especially water lily as described by Kuruntogai.

Dwellings

            People lived in two kinds of houses – those built of mud and the others built of bricks. According to the Sangam texts the second category of houses were built of suduman, which literally means burnt mud. The poor lived in thatched houses covered with grass or leaves of the coconut or palmyra. Windows were generally small and made like the deer’s eye. The literary works describe the well-built storeyed houses of the rich people, which had gopurams for the entrance and iron gates with red paint to prevent from rusting. Silappadikaram mentions that these houses were lighted with beautiful artistic lamps often from Greece and Rome. They were burned with oil extracted from fish.

Food and Drinks

            Non-vegetarianism was the main food habit though brahmin ascetics preferred vegetarian food. The food was very plain and consisted of rice, milk, butter, ghee and honey. Meat and liquor were freely used. Curd was in popular use. Kuruntogaimentions various kinds of sweets made with curd, jaggery, puffed rice, milk and ghee. Spicing of curry and rice is also referred to in the Sangam texts. On the whole the upper class consumed high quality of rice, the choicest meat, imported wine, etc. Thebrahmins preferred vegetarian food and avoided alcoholic drinks. In urban area, the public distribution of food was made by the charitable institutions.

            Feasts were organised for collective entertainment. The custom of feeding guests was a common custom and eating without a guest to partake of the food was considered unsatisfying. Poets and learned were always considered as honoured guests and red rice fried in ghee was given to them as a mark of love and respect.

Entertainments

            There were numerous amusements and plays in which people participated for entertainment. The sources of entertainment included dances, musical programmes, religious festivals, bull-fights, cock-fights, marble-game, hunting, dice, wrestling, boxing, acrobatics, etc. Women amused themselves with the religious dances, playing the dice andvarippanthu or cloth ball. Playing in swings made of palmrya fibres was common among girls. Narrinai refers to the games played with decorated dolls. Kuruntogai mentions about children playing with toy-cart and with the sand houses made by them on the seashore.

            Dance and music were other popular sources of entertainment. The Sangam poems mention various kinds of dances. Silappadikaram mentions eleven kinds of dances, which are divided into seven groups. It also gives minute details about music. There are further references to the different kinds of musical instruments such as the drums, flute and yal sold in shops at Puhar and Madurai. The performing arts also included the art of drama. The dramas were mostly religious in character but sometimes these were enacted to commemorate great event or persons. Bardism and the system of wandering minstrels going from place to place with their musical instruments singing the glory of either a person or a great event commanded great popularity in the Sangam age. Initially, the bard (porunar) began as an individual to whip up the martial spirit of the soldiers engaged in war and to sing of their victory when the battle was won. However, their activities were not confined to encourage the soldiers in the battle-field alone but also to carry messages from there to the people at home. They had high respect in society and were even honored by the kings. Besides the porunar were the panar who performed for the common people.

The Cheras (Sangam Age)

The edicts of Ashoka (Gannjam district, Mysore) mentioned of Keralaputras (Cheras). Likewise, Sangam literature talked about Cheras too. From Aleppy, the graceful Cheras expanded their territory as far as Calicut. There existed another branch of Cheras called "Irumporai Cheras, who had their capital at Karur and the territory included the Palghat pass and the Kongu plain. Perhaps during 150 BC, Cheras began issuing coins. Periplus and the literature of Pliny and Ptolemy mentions of a well established kingdom of Cheras around 1st to 2nd century AD. The coins were generally found in their commercial city of Karur, which had their royal emblem "Bow and Arrow". Irumporai cheras issued coinage even around 250 AD or slightly later.

The Chera dynasty was one of the ancient Tamil dynasties who reigned over south India from early times until the fifteenth century. Their kingdom extended over the Malabar Coast, Karur, Coimbatore and Salem Districts in South India, which now is a part of present day Kerala and Tamil Nadu. The Chera kings were constantly into conflicts with their neighboring kingdoms to established political associations they sometimes inter- married with the families of the adversary kings.
The first Chera ruler was Perumchottu Utiyan Cheralatan who founded the Chera dynasty. He was succeeded by his son Imayavaramban Nedum Cheralatan who converted the Chera dynasty into a powerful one and extended and enriched his kingdom from all aspects. Imayavaramban’s reign was also very important for the development of art and Literature as he patronized art and culture greatly. His poet laureate was Kannanar. However, the greatest ruler of the Chera Dynasty was Kadalpirakottiya Vel Kelu Kuttuvan, whose reference has been made in the great Tamil epic- Silappadigaram.


Trade and Commerce flourished during the reign of the Cheras. The Cheras traded in ivory, timber, spices and exported precious gems and pearls to the Middle East and these trade contacts with the Middle East established Judaism.

COINAGE

The Punch Marked Coins (PMC) in silver of the Mauryans, circulated well in Cheran territory during 2nd century to 1st century BC. The only difference one may observe in these coinage is the additional local punches they carried in them. Imported Roman silver dinaris circulated and accepted well in the region too. Together with them, there existed another type of coinage issued in Copper by the cheran authority. Being in quadrilateral shapes, sometime they carried several punches (as inspired by the Mauryan coinage) and some carried the image such as elephant, horse etc., The symbols such as Elephant, Horse, Bow and Arrow all shows the interdependency of these "Muvvararasar" (Three Kings, Chera, Chola, Pandya). The smallest of the coins weighed around 2 gms, and the biggest ones were of around 6 gms. 

Obv: Elephant to right with Bull above, trident standard in front, tree branch over back of Elephant, Mangala (auspicious) symbols above viz srivatsa, pot, swastika etc

Rev: Chera dynastic emblem of a strung Bow-arrow; ankusa (goad) below.

The above image of this square shape copper coin belongs to the Chera coinage. Its obverse depicts an elephant walking towards the right and in the front, a six arched hill is featured. In the centre, a bow and arrow are depicted with a snake above it and a battle axe is shown on the left. The reverse of the coin depicts a bow-arrow, the symbol of the Cheras. This coin belongs to the Sangam age. 

EARLY CHERAS (Sangam Age)	Period of Ruling
Imaya Varamban Nedun Cheral Andan	58 years
Palyanai Selkelu Kuttuvan	25 years
Kalangaikkanni Narmudi Cheral	25 years
Kadal Pirakkottiya Senguttuvan	55 years
Adu Kotpattu Cheral Adan	38 Years
Selvakkadungo Vali Adan	25 Years
Perum Cheral Irumporai	17 years
Ilan Cheral Irumporai	16 Years

                                                                 Bow & Arrow

Kings of Chera took the title ‘Villavar Kon’, Villavar means archer in Tamil. These archers were the one who founded Chera dynasty. 

The bow-arrow was the insignia of the Chera dynasty which was present on their flag. The presence of the bow and arrow on the coins indicated the Supremes of the Cheras. 


It is said that Cheran Sengattuvam, the popular king of Chera dynasty had the best navy in the world. The capital of Chera was Vanji which consist of the famous and chief port of Thondi. They had strong trade relations with the Roman Empire. 

The Early Pandyas (Sangam Age)

The Pandyas were one of the three small Dhravidian races that occupied the southern extremity of India. Around 700 BC, Dhravidians must have penetrated into S.India and organized themselves into distinguishable communities. Titles such as Solan, Pandiyan, and Keralas proves the existence of such a community. Early Pandyan Kingdom comprised the greater part of modern Madura and Tinnevelly district during 1st century AD. Their original capital was at Kolkoi (on the Thambraparny river in Tinnevelly) and later at Madura. Ashokan edicts of 3rd Century BC mentions of Pandyas. Kongu Ratta inscription of early 5th century AD recorded the conflict of Pandyas with Kongu Rattas. Not much is known about Pandyas then onwards until 7th century AD. Cheras, possibly remained as allies of Pandyas for a larger period than the Cholas. The dependence with Cholas and Cheras allowed them to continue free movement and trade along the coast of SriLanka. Around 940 AD, Rajaraja Chola reduced the Pandyas to a condition of tributary dependence and the position continued for the next two centuries. After Chola dominance, Madura Sultans, Vijayanagara Rayas, Nayakas of Madura, Nawabs of Arcot took turn to rule the once powerful Pandyan Kingdom. Pandyas were restricted to unimportant areas of Tinnevelly district. At the end of 16th century, Pandya dynasty disappeared from Indian scene once for all.

Sangam period (Tamil: Cankakala paruvam) is the period in the history of ancient southern India (known as the Tamilakam) spanning from c. 3rd century BC to c. 4th century CE. It is named after the famous Sangam academies of poets and scholars centered in the city of Madurai.

According southern Indian legends, there were three Sangam periods, namely Head Sangam, Middle Sangam and Last Sangam period. Historians use the term Sangam period to refer the last of these, the first two being legendary. So it is also called Last Sangam period (Tamil: Kaaiccanka paruvam), or Third Sangam period (Tamil: Munam canka paruvam). The Sangam literature is thought to have been produced in three Sangam academies of each period. The evidence on the early history of the southern India consists of the epigraphs of the region, the Sangam literature, and archaeological data.

In Old Tamil language, the term Tamilakam (Tamilakam, Purananuru 168. 18) referred to the whole of the ancient Tamil-speaking area, corresponding roughly to the area known as southern India today, consisting of the territories of the present-day Indian states of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, parts of Andhra Pradesh, parts of Karnataka and northern Sri Lanka also known as Illam.

Pandyan or Pandian dynasty was an ancient Tamil dynasty, one of the three Tamil dynasties (the other two being Chola and Chera), which ruled parts of South India until the 15th century AD. They initially ruled their country Pandya Nadu from Korkai, a seaport on the southernmost tip of the Indian Peninsula, and in later times moved to Madurai. Pandyan was well known since ancient times, with contacts, even diplomatic, reaching the Roman Empire. During the 13th century AD, Marco Polo mentioned it as the richest empire in existence. The Pandyan empire was home to temples including Meenakshi Amman Temple in Madurai, and Nellaiappar Temple built on the bank of the river Thamirabarani in Tirunelveli. The Pandya kings were called either Jatavarman or Maravarman Pandyan. From being Jains in their early ages, they became Shaivaits after some centuries of rule.

Also, the Pandyas, along with the Cheras and the Cholas, find mention as one of the three ruling dynasties of the southern region of the then Bharatavarsha in the Hindu epic Ramayana. They are also mentioned in the Aitareya Aranyaka, and the Mahabharata, where they are (along with the Cheras and the Cholas) believed to have been on the side of the Pandavas in the Great War.

As with many other kingdoms around this period (earlier than 200 BCE), most of the information about the Early Pandyas come to us mainly through literary sources and some epigraphic, archaeological and numismatic evidence.  The capital of the Early Pandyan kingdom was initially Korkai, around 600 BCE, and was later moved to Koodal (now Madurai) during the reign of Nedunj Cheliyan I.

The kings of the Pandyan Dynasty are frequently mentioned in Sangam literature of the third century BCE and onwards, in works such as the Mathuraikkanci and other early Tamil literary works such as Cilapatikaram, which have been used by historians to identify their names and, to some extent, their genealogy. Nedunj Cheliyan III is referred to as the most popular warrior among the Early Pandyas, winning a battle at Talaialanganam against a coalition of forces from Cholas and Cheras and five other kingdoms. The early Pandyan kingdom extended between Travancore in the west, Vellaru river in the north and all the way to the ocean in the east and the south.

The Early Pandyas had active maritime trade relationships with the west, a fact testified by western classical writers such as Pliny the Elder (1st century CE), Strabo, Ptolemy and the author of the Periplus. The Panydan country was well known for pearl fishery, with Korkai being the principal center of the trade. Some of the exports were pearls, spices, ivory and shells, while the imports included horses, gold, glass and wine.

RELIGION

The Hinduism which was followed by the Aryans along with the demon worship of the local earlier inhabitants would have got mixed well and practiced. It is suggested that Meenakshi may have been a Pandyan princess whom Brahmana immigrants found to be too dear to the hearts of people. The marriage of Meenakshi to Lord Siva was perhaps a method to reconcile and unite the old faith with a new.

During the Sangam age, Hinduism, including Vedic Brahminism, was a popular religion among the people. Siva, Murugan, Krishna, Balarama and Kali were some of the popular deities among the Hindus.

FISH COGNISANCE

The flag of the early Pandyas during 200 BC till 300 AD carried a Fish or fishes on it. The fish referred to is a species of carp or Barbel found in the river and has a Tamil name "Kayal". The very name of the new capital "Kayal" (after Korkoi) was perhaps due to the dynastic emblem of the earlier Pandyas. Even the sovereign had carried the title "Minavan", the Fish one.

The earliest Pandyan or Madurai Pandyan coins were silver Punched Marks but copper coins were chiefly found in Madurai e.g. Copper coin depicting a Horse and Bodhi tree in front with Buddhist shaccram on the reverse. 


When Madurai Pandya left Buddhism they changed the horse with Bodhi tree to Fish, a symbol Vishnu. This Fish Symbol became the dynastic emblem of the Pandyan. 

Mahavira’s mother had seen 16 auspicious things in her dream and one of them was two jumping fishes.

COINAGE

The earliest coinage in the south consisted of globules of gold with one or two indistinct punches on them. A similar type of copper might have been inducted by the earlier Pandyas alongwith these gold globules. The early copper coins are square in shape and usually carried the symbol of elephant on most of the obverses. The silver currency circulated during Mauryan period. The Bodnayakanur(Tinnevelly District) hoard reveals yet another type of silver currency (could be dated back to 100BC) has a weight of about 1.5gm (closest to half karshapana weight) and has five punches on the obverse. the reverse had a typical Pandyan fish type of punch, that is represented with lines approach as usual in the contemporary copper coinage. 

  

Obv: Elephant to right (coin 1); to left (coin 2)

Rev: Stylized Fish

The dynastic emblem of the Pandya's was the 'Fish' that features prominently on their coins.

Pandya Empire: Anonymous (ca 3rd - 1st century BCE) AE Unit (Krishnamurthy-20)

Obv: Elephant standing facing right with smaller elephant below; in front of the elephant there is a trisula; next to that, a part of tree-in-railing. Above the elephant from left to right, there are four symbols; tree-in-railing, conch, pot with crescent symbol above that and chakra

Rev: Stylized fish symbol

Reference

Krishnamurthy, R., Wickramasinghe, S., A Catalogue of the Sangam Age Pandya and Chola Coins in the National Museum, Colombo, Sri Lanka, Department of the National Museums.

Obv : Various punch mark symbols, Tree without railing, stupa like symbol, sadarachakra, unidentifyable symbol

Rev : Stylised Pandyan fish symbol

Weight: 0.6g

Diameter: 1.1x1.1cm

Silver Punch Mark Coin of Pandya's. Mayuran Punch Mark Coins were in use in South India. Probably, when these PMCs were no longer available, Pandya's started issueing their own Punch Mark Coins. Pandyan PMC of good coinditions are found with worn out Mayuran Punch Mark Coins.

The Early Cholas (Sangam Age)

200 BC to 300 AD is called as the Sangam Age because of the Sangam classical literature which refers to the existence of three Dhravidian communities namely Solan, Pandyan, and Chera. Pandyas were the powerful dynasty that controlled the destiny of other two dynasties namely Chola and Chera.

HISTORY

The reference to Cholas appears in the Mahabharata epic of 7th cent BC. The Sanskrit Grammarian Katyayana of 4th cent BC also mentions of Cholas. Again the name occurs on the Ashokan edicts of 3rd century BC. So it is suggested that the three Dhravidian dynasties namely Chola, Chera, Pandya had sprung up from a common origin and developed three kingdoms in a three well defined region and live in harmony so as to allow free movement and trade. The first historical King was Karikala who is stated to have invaded Ceylon . He is assumed to have lived in the second half of 1st century AD. He was succeeded by his son Nedumuri Killi. It was during Nedumuri Kill's reign, Kaveripattanam is supposed to have been destroyed by the sea. During second or 3rd cent AD, the Pallavas seems to have been in the zenith of their power and the Chola Kingdom was conquered by them (Pallavas). Nothing is heard of Cholas since then until 8th century AD.

COINAGE

The square copper coins similar in fabric to what Cheras and Pandyans introduced, remained the currency in the beginning of 1st century AD. They had both obverses and reverses. The later coinage is a single obverse design issued during 1st and 2nd century AD. No gold coin is heard of early Cholas.

Elephants on Chera, Chola and Pandya Coinage ?

As per retired professor of University of Madras, P Shanmugam - there are at least 1000 different symbols embossed on coins from that period. Elephant, sun and mountain, appeared more often than others. These symbols must have reflected day to day life. Objects that powerfully represented daily life were embossed more often than others on coins.

Punch-marked coins actually come from the pre-Mouria period (before emperor Ashoka). The Chera, Chola, Pandyas of the Sangam period used it. Initially, they printed each symbol separately, but as the demand increased they started printing the symbols together on coins using a single mould. Most Sangam period coins, excavated from various parts of Tamil Nadu, were made of copper. There are some silver coins, but gold coins have not been found so far. Some coins even had legends in ancient Tamil Brahmi embossed on them.

In Buddhist iconography, the elephant is associated with Queen Maya or Mahamaya, the mother of Gautama Buddha. Further according to the Buddhist Philosophy the elephant is associated with the birth of Buddha and the stability of the “Dhamma” too. The elephant symbolises royal authority and majesty.

The appearance of the punch marked coins from c. 4th BCE coincides with the rise of Buddhism in India. Elephants have a special place in Buddhist mythology and religion with them representing the mental strength.

With the Mauryans emerging as an imperial power and exercising control over most parts of the Indian sub-continent, the elephants must be symbolic of the strength and might of the Mauryan Empire.

The elephants had a place so important in Ancient Indian army that, an army without elephants has been compared to a forest without a lion, a kingdom without a king or as a valor unaided by weapons.

Chanakya, the great brahman co-founder of the Mauryan dynasty credited South India with the strongest elephants in the known world.

It is possible that Ashoka entered into friendly alliance with the Tamil kings to provide their elephants for war against Kalinga.

Rajaraja chola is said to have possessed 60,000 war elephants. Compare this with Mauryas or Guptas who could not field higher than 20,000.

Probably the first use of elephants in war, dates back to India only. Even they are mentioned in the great epics of India, Ramayana and Mahabharata. The famous incident of Bhima killing of an elephant named Aswathama, to conquer over Drona is well known.

These huge beasts were the backbone of the any Indian army, often heavily armored from top to bottom.

We can infer that the representation of the elephants on these coins are either suggestive of some religious importance or refer to the royal power and strength.

The Malayamans (Sangam Age)

The hereditary chiefs,MALAYAMAN belonged to Malayaman-nadu (Sangam literature). They had their capital at Tirucoilur, on the river of Ponnaiyar. Tirucoilur was situated on the early trade route from north to the south and enjoyed trade with Satavahanas. Principle port of them was at Arikamedu on the east. Sangam literature mentions of Tirumudikari, a Malayaman chief who fought alongside Perunarkilli Chola to defeat Cheral Irumporai (Irumporai Cheras). Vastly, Cholas, Cheras and even Satavahanas controlled the destiny in times.

COINAGE

The Malayamans issued copper coins of quadrilateral shape which carried their royal emblem "Horse" sometime facing left or sometime to right. In some of the older coins (early coins) a legend "Malayaman" above the horse motif decorated the coin obverse. Most of their coins, on the reverse carried the symbolical map of their territory "A wide curved river with fishes flowing in it, and a rectangular town beside the river". This basically depicts the kind of territory they ruled. The Malayaman coins generally weighed between 2 to 4 gms and are of thin fabric unlike the contemporary Cheras. 

Obverse	Horse standing right, altar in front
Reverse	Map illustrating the location of Tirucoilur (the Malayaman capital): three hills in the distance, the river Ponnaiyar flowing from right to left, the town within its curve below, a road (?) at left.

Obv: Horse standing right; altar in front; Trident side of horse

Rev: Map showing wide river with fishes; rectangular town symbol in left bend; three hills above; ankus + spectre